Journal of US-China Public Administration.ISSN 1 548-659 1 April 20l l,Vo1.8,No.4,401-412 …N Spanish E--government and the Third Digital Divide" A Sociological View术 Jos6 Manuel Robles Complutense University of Madrid,Madrid,Spain Crist6bal Torres—Albero Aut6noma University of Madrid,Madrid,Spain Stefano de Marco Complutense University of Madrid,Madrid,Spain This paper addresses the social implications of e-government from the point of view of the third digital divide applied to the case of Spain.This paper defines the third digital divide as the technological inequalities resulting from the use of the Internet and the competitive advantages gained by the users of certain services compared to non-users.It shows that the use of e-government in Spain provides a series of advantages that can only be enjoyed by a limited group of citizens.This limitation is closely related with certain social groups.The people who most benefit from these services are those with the highest levels of education.This paper suggests that this fact is a signiifcant obstacle to a balanced development of the information and knowledge society in Spain.For the purposes of this paper,a statistical study has been carried out based on data from surveys by the National Institute of Statistics of Spain(INE)from 2003 to 2009. Keywords:digital democracy,representation,e-government,digital divide,Spain Two of the most frequently mentioned concepts in the study of the information and knowledge society are “digital divide’’and“digital democracy”.Traditionally.the study of these two concepts has followed separate paths .Few studies have linked the development of digital political practices and the inequalities of the information and knowledge society.In this and other papers on digital democracy,this has been one of our main concerns(Robles&De Marco,20 1 0,20 1 1).The aim in all these papers is to analyse the influence of the digital divide on online political practices,as well as on classical democratic concepts such as ideology,vote or representation.In this specific case,this paper focuses on one particular digital political practice,namely, e-government. E—government is the use of information and communication technologies(ICTs卜mainly the Intemet-to Acknowledgement:We acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.especially from Project CSO 2009.13424 nad from Project CSO 2009.13771. Corresponding author:Jose Manuel Robles,professor Section III Department of Sociology,Faculty of Economics and Business.Complutense University of Madrid;research fields:digital political participation.digital divide and digital democracy. Crist6bal Torres.Albero.fuIl professor.Department of Sociology.Aut6noma University of Madrid;research fields:sociology of science and technology.sociology of inforrnation and knowledge society.E.mail:cristoba1.torres@uam.es. Stefano de Marco,Ph.D.candidate,Section IIl Department of Sociology,Faculty of Economics and Business,Complutense University of Madrid;research ifelds:digital political participation.digital divide and digital democracy. There are notable exceptions,especially Norris(200 l . 402 SPANISH E.GoVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE access and use the services and resources of the different local,regional,national or supranational governments. It js one of the most relevant digital political practices.It is relevant so much not because of its positive contribution in terms of democratic innovation,but from the point of view of the support and promotion given to e-government from the various political instittiuons.As shown in this paper,experts on the issue agree on the low political value of e-govemment.In other words,the digitalisation of the services of the different public administrations has brought about signiifcant changes in terms of lfexibility or accessibility of use(Scholl, 2005;Sidoroff&Hyv6nen.2005).but its impact on the democratic development of communities is lower. Possibly for this reason,the study of e-government has focused mainly,although not exclusively,on issues such as the strategies to set up digital administrative services,the legal and regulatory framework for their application and the“usability”of the services(Criado&Ramilo,2003). However.the study of e—government has nOt-at least not to the same extent---dealt with the social and political nature of this ype tof digital political too1.This is the main concern of this paper.This paper is interested in e—government practices from the point of view of citizens and their social characteristics,in order to analyse the equaliy of topportunities to use the digital services of e—government.In other words,this paper is interested in the possible effects ofthe digital divide on the equal opportunities to access e--government services. This paper is structured as follows.Firstly,a definition of the used concepts is provided,by summarising the main types of reltiaonship between ICTs and politics.Among these,it will focus on the concept of e-government.This section also defines the second basic operating concept of this paper:the third digital divide. Having defined the concepts,the paper then moves onto a descriptive section to analyse the usage of e—government services in Spain.Following this first approach to the issue。a logistic regression statistical analysis is carried out.This analysis allows us to verify the existence of a reltiaonship between certain social and demographic variables and the use of the Intemet as a means of relating digitally with the different public administrations.In both the descriptive nd aanalytic sections,data rfom the National Institute of Statistics(INE) of Spain is used.More speciifcally,this paper has used the data rom fthe surveys on“ICT equipment and use in households”,carried out by this institute since 2003.In the last section of this paper,this paper discusses the possible consequences of the study’s empirical results or fthe idea of equal opportunities of access to the digital services offered by the different public administrations. Digital Democracy,E-government and the Idea of the Third Digital Divide: Definition of Concepts Technologies and Politics:The Idea of E・government The relationship bet ̄veen politics and new information and communication technologies is complex and heterogeneous.In fact,the very concept of digital democracy,one of the most frequently used in this line of research.is not entirely univoca1.Among the most interesting and productive efforts undertaken in this ielfd of research are the construction of types and models that allow US to gain a better understanding of the diversiy tand characteristics of all political practices that use ICTs to a greater or lesser extent(Van Dijk&Hacker.2000; Hagen,1 997,2000;Dahlberg,200 1). One of the warranties of representative government is transparency in public management,as well as the provision of public services for citizens to exercise their rights and fulilf their duties in the best possible conditions.In this sense,the Internet is becoming a very useful technology.Digital government provides citizens with a more accessible and powerful means of communication with government institutions-their SPANISH E.GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE 403 representative institutions.Thus.for instance.the offer of information from different administrations and governments through the Intemet can help improve the information available to citizens,and therefore,their ability to defend themselves or demand their rights.This is,expressed in different terms,a form of political contro1.Furthermore.the possibility of managing services through the Internet makes it easier for citizens to fulilf their duties and provides them with a quicker and more practical means of defending their rights. E—government represents a political mechanism whose aim is not to introduce new mechanisms of political action.but rather,by making the administration’s resources more lexifble and accessible,to improve the service that already existed before.Therefore.e-government is a weak political activiy itn democratic terms as it does not introduce elements as politically innovative as for instance,online political deliberation practices (Wojcieszak&Mutz,2007).However,according to the plan adopted at the United Nations World Summit on Information Society.e-government provides clear benefits for citizens.These benefits are reltaed with a more open,transparent,approachable,comprehensive and relational administrtaion(Scholl,2005).In other words,an administrtaion improves the relationship between citizens nad the institutions representing them. Both the Spanish and European governments,aware of this circumstance,have expressed their interest in this means of digital political reltaionship by encouraging and regulating e-government practices.From the angle that interests us for the purpose ofthis pape卜—_the citizens’angle,the Spanish Government has passed the LAECSP .a law which guarantees“the right of citizens to relate with the public administrations via electronic means for the exercise of the rights established by law”.It also recognises‘*the right of citizens to obtain information,make consultations and allegations,make requests,give consent,make payments,make transactions and object to administrative decisions and acts by electronic means”(LAECPS.2007).In order to facilitate this digital reltaionship with the administration,the LAECSP recognises other auxiliary rights.These are:rights related with electronic media,rights reltaed with electronic administrtaive procedures,rights related with the security of electronic transactions,the right to quality public information and services and lastly,the mechanisms to guarantee citizens’rights.However,the law does not establish any mechanism that guarantees the rights of citizens before all Spanish public administrations(Cerrillo,2008). As seen below,this circumstance is vital for the conclusions of the Paper. The Third Digital Divide The digital divide is a form of inequaliyt reltaed with the irregular distribution of access and usage of information and communication technologies,speciifcally,the Internet.However,under this general definition there hide nuances that are the key to understanding the true importance of this ofrm of inequaliyt.The original conception of the digital divide ofcuses on the differences in access to ICTs caused by the inequalities in terms of infrastructures and services available to some sectors of the population(Nicholas,2003).Therefore,the inequalities in the use of ICTs in general and the Internet in particular are attributed to the fact that not all citizens have the same opportunities to access this technology(OECD,2000).Thus,the problem of the digital divide is.in political terms.one that can be solved technically.It is also a problem that can be solved in the mid—term,by generating equal access conditions in order to bring about defacto equaliyt. The second conception of the digital divide results to a great extent rfom two facts,one empirical and the other theoretica1.reltaed with the previous conception.Since the start of this decade,a great number of Law for Electronic Access of Citizens to Public Services,in force since June 23,2007. However,those citizens do have an ombudsman for electronic administration users that reports to the Council of Ministers on citizens’problems in their use of electronic administration services. 404 SPANISH E.GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE empirical studies have shown that universalising the service offer does not guarantee usage of this technology by all social groups(Hargitai,2002;Gunkel,2003).Specialists in the digital divide started to pay attention to the differences produced between those who use and those who do not use the Internet and,mainly,to the social characteristics of these two groups.This is what has been termed the second—level digital divide(Bucy, 2000;Dimaggio et a1.,2001;Van Dijk&Hacker,2003;Hargittai,2002).From this perspective,the focus is on explaining technological inequalities through social differences.The study of the social differences focuses not only on access to ICTs but also on usage or non-usage of these technologies.That is,it analyses the differences in Internet usage and uses as a result of belonging to one social group or another.Thus,there are studies of Internet usage differences between men and women(Bimber,2000;Cooper&Weaver,2003;Castafio,2005), between people of different ethnic groups and origins(Hoffman et a1.,2000)and between people with a medium/high level of education and a medium/low level of education(Bonfadelli,2002;Robles&Molina, 2007;Robles,Torres,&Molina,20 1 0). In recent years,the study of the digital divide has turned its attention from inequalities in usage of the Internet to inequalities caused by the consequences of usage of the Internet.This shift is,to a great extent,the result of efforts to respond to the criticisms regarding the temporary and/or circumstantial nature of the digital divide.In other words,the criticisms that digital inequalities,whether understood according to the ifrst or second conception of the digital divide,are forms of inequality that can be solved and are therefore minor fo・iflls of inequaliy(tNegroponte,1 996).The study of the third digital divide focuses on active Internet users,and looks at the inequalities that arise as a consequence of the uses of this technology.Authors such as Van Dijk(2005)have started to consider the Internet as a tool that allows users to CalTy out activities that generate a set of competitive advantages.The term“competitive advantages”here refers to all kinds of information,knowledge and opportunities that place individuals in a better position to access competitive or scarce goods 0obs,leisure offer, defence of political or social interests,etc.).Thus,the most recent studies on the information and knowledge society focus on the social aspects,mainly from the point of view of the repercussions of the digital divide dn‘ justice,equaliy and socital inclusion(Warschauer,2004),as well as on the ethical repercussions(Rooksby& Weckert,2007)of this type of inequaliy.Robltes,Torres and Molina(20 1 0)showed how one of the social consequences of this third digital divide is the increase or polarisation of inequalities within a given territory. The different Spanish public administrations have not ignored the dangers of the digital divide for a balanced development of the information and knowledge society.Precisely for this reason,they have implemented a broad set of actions to guarantee equal access and use of ICTs in Spain.In line with the first conception of the digital divide,regional governments such as the Government of Andalusia,promoted several initiatives to take Internet connection to areas which,for reasons of accessibiliy,were ltacking this infrastructure.The idea is that the state covers those areas where the market fails to do so in terms of technological infrastructures.One of the most common strategies in this sense has been to use satellite or Wi—Fi technologies to take Internet to areas whose geographic accessibility or low demographic densiy tmake private coverage unfeasible from a financial point of view.On its part,the Plan Avanza4,more in line with the principles of the second conception of digital divide.includes the strategic action“avanza ciudadania”whose aim is to improve citizens’perception of the advantages and possibilities of the use of ICTs.However,to the 4 Plan Avanza is the name given by the Spanish Government to the set of public strategies geared to promoting the development of the information and knowledge society(http://www.planavanza.es/Paginas/Inicio.aspx). SPANISH E.G0VERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE 405 best of our knowledge,there are no public strategies designed to limit the possible negative effects of what we have referred to as the third digital divide.This is another element of great relevance orf this P叩er. Having defined the concepts this paper is going to use and having outlined their political framework,the paper will now present an analytic descriptive study of the use of e-government in Spain.Then,the study will outline a set of conclusions that will help us evaluate the political effects of the development of e-government in all environment marked by the digital divide. E—government in Spain:An Empirical Study of the Uses of the Digital Services Offered by the Administration Descriptive Section In this section,the paper will describe how and in what proportion Spanish citizens use digital government services.To this aim.it will use the data rom tfhe surveys on“ICT equipment and use in households”carried out by the National Institute of Statistics fINE )of Spain between 2003 and 2009.This description shall take three variables from these surveys:use of public administration websites to obtain information;use of public administration websites to download public interest documents or forms and use of public administration websites to send these documents or forms.Whereas the first variable allows us to gain knowledge about citizens who obtain inf ̄lmartion regarding issues relted wiath their representative institutions,the latter two allow us to understand to what extent citizens establish a stronger relationship with these institutions.That is. the last two variables allow us to gain a better understanding of the degree of digital interaction between citizens and representative institutions. Currently,60%of the Spanish popultiaon uses the Internet.This percentage is the result of a 20 percentage point growth in six years(rfom 2004 to 2009).In political terms,it is known that,in 2009,half of the Spanish Intemet users had digital contact with t laeast one of the administrations that represents them.In other words, 47.7%of Spanish Internet users had used the lntemet in the previous three months to obtain information regarding an issue of their interest through their local,regional or national government website.The proportion of the Intemet user popultiaon who use the Intemet to download documents offered by their government online is about one ourfth(26.2%).Lastly,1 4.2%of Spanish Internet users had used the Internet in the previous three months to send orfms or documents to the institutions that represent them. From the political use of the Intemet diachronically(Figure 1),it can be seen that there has been almost no variation in the number of Internet users who use this form of political communication and interaction.The percentages of users of this service over the last seven years have remained essentially stable.The variation over these years of the percentage of Internet users who search for information on the websites of their governments has varied only slightly more than 4 percentage points(一4.4 points).Meanwhile,downloads and sending of information have descended by 0.9 and 1.0 percentage points respectively.These percentages are scarcely signiicafnt. This evolution contrasts with that of other services.According to data rom tfhe INE,from 2003 to 2009, the percentage of Intemet users who relate with their banks trough thhe Internet increased by practically 1 5 percentage points.The same is the case with communication among citizens.The use of chat rooms,forums or blogs rose by almost 20 percentage points.E-commerce has also increased in recent years in Spain,having National Institute of Statistics of the Spanish Government(http://www.ine.es/).For this survey,the INE uses the methodology and indicators defined by EUROSTAT. SPANISH E.GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE risen frOm 5.5%in 2003 to 15.7%in 2009.Lastly,the use of the Internet to obtain information about current affairs through newspapers,magazines or other traditional media also increased signiifcantly in this period(1 4 percentage points). Figure,.Use of e.government in Spain from 2003 to 2009(Base:Internet users in the last three months in Spai“) S叫rce:National Institute of Statistics(INE):Surveys 2003・2009 on“ICT equipment and use in households”. Figure 2. three months in Spain) Source:National Institute of Statistics ONE):Survey 2009 on“ICT equipment and use in households’ One of the main issues in the study of the relationship between representative public administrations and the Intemet is what type of uses or services are most used by citizens through institutional websites.Figure 2 shows the online institutional services most frequently used by Spanish Internet users.It highlights the fact that one of the most important duties of citizens--paying tax—is used practically by one third of Internet users・ Then.a second group of users whose penetration varies from 1 5.7%to l 1.7%is found.Among these there IS the application for social benefits,job.seeking or searching ofr health—related information.Lastly,it finds some minority uses such as registering on the census or contacting with public security forces.However,what most interests US for the purposes of this paper is that,among the mentioned digital uses,there are several which provide citizens with a set of competitive advantages over those who do not use them.These uses represent,a shall be seen。the characteristics described by the literature on the third—level digital divide. Up to now,the paper has shown in descriptive terms,the evolution of the percentage of Spanish citizenS SPANISH E.G0VERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE 407 who use the Internet to establish some kind of online relationship with the different public administrations. However,for the purposes of this paper,the following question must be asked:What are the social,economic or demographic characteristics of these citizens?As we have mentioned above,this question is relevant for gaining knowledge regarding the opportunities of citizens with different social and demographic characteristics to take advantage of the services offered by the administration through the Internet.From a different perspective,for answering this question,the paper shall attempt to improve the understanding of the impact of phenomena such as the digital divide on the use of e-government.For this purpose,the following analysis model has been developed. Analytic Study:Methodology and Main Results The aim pursued in this section is to analyse the incidence of certain social and demographic variables on a particular political use of the Internet:obtaining information from websites of the different public administrations.Out of the uses described above,the paper has chosen this use for the following reasons.On the one hand,it is the most common use of e—government among Spanish Intemet users,and this gives us the chance to work with a sufifciently high number of cases.On the other hand,although the objective results obtained through this study are not necessarily applicable to other administrative uses of the Intemet,they Call help us reinforce the thesis outlined in the descriptive section:Social and demographic variables have a significant influence on the use of e—government. The data used ofr this analysis are from the survey on“ICT equipment and use in households”(INE,2009) carried out by the National Institute of Statistics(INE)of Spain in 2009.The 1 9,644 interviews were carried out,of which 1 0,653(Base:Internet users in the last 3 months)have been used for this naalysis. The technique used has been logistic regression,being an ideal tool to verify whether the occurrence of a given event is influenced by a series of variables,as the case in question.Thus,there is a dependent variable that is dichotomous and distinguishes between Internet users who use this medium to obtain information from administration websites and those who do not use it for this speciifc use.In addition,the following set of independent or explanatory variables are considered:sex(male,female),age group(1 6—29,30—44,45—59,60+), level of education(no education/primary education,secondary education,university education),employment status(employed,unemployed,student,homemaker,pensioner,other),nationaliyt(Spanish,foreign,Spanish and foreign)and size of habitta(<l 0,000,1 0,000-50,000,50,000—1 00,000,>1 00,000 nad capital cities). The method of inclusion of variables used is forward conditional selection,in order to obtain the most parsimonious mode1.All the explanatory variables are categorical and are coded in the same order that appears in the previous paragraph,establishing for all of them the first category as reference.What follows is a commentary on the main results obtained.The inclusion of variables in the model was carried out in six steps. Therefore all the explanatory variables considered are significant.This does not mean that all the variables are relevant,given that signiifcance depends on the size of the sample and,in this case,because the sample is so big,small differences are considered signiifcant. Having said this,we shall now analyse in what sense our social and demographic variables influence the use of the Intemet to obtain information from the administration.To do so,we look at the categories where there are signiifcant differences with regard to those established as reference,and we interpret the coefifcients in terms ofodds ratios(Table 1). 408 SPANISH E—GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE Table l Variables in the Equation Note.Source:The authors’own elaboration. Starting by age group,it must be said that all comparisons with the category of reference(1 6—29 age group) are signiicant.The fodds。ofpeople in age group 30-44 making this speciic fuse ofthe Intemet are 33%higher than for younger people.If we compare the age group 45—59 with the youngest,the odds of making this use are also higher(24.4%).If we compare the oldest age group with the youngest,the odds of using the Intemet for the purpose under study are 32%less.Thus,people aged between 30 and 59 are the age group that most make this use,followed by the youngest.People over the age of 60 make the least use of the Internet for this purpose. If we look at level of education,there are great differences.The odds for individuals with secondary education making this use are 1 60%higher than the odds for people without education or with primary education only.These differences are much sharper if we compare university—educated users with those with no formal education or primary education only,the odds for the former making this use being seven times higher than the odds for the latter.We can therefore conclude that the higher the level of education,the greater the use is. With regard to employment status,there is only one comparison that is clearly signiifcant(there is another Odds is defined as the probability of occu ̄ence of an event divided by the probability of non.occurrence:P/(1.P).In this case, the odds would be the ratio between the probabiliy of tusing the Intemet to obtain information from administration websites and the probabiliy of tnot making this use of the Internet. SPANISH E.GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE 409 with a 5%signiifcance level but not a 1%signiifcance leve1).This comparison is of the group of homemakers with regard to people in employment,the odds for the former making this use of the Internet being 62%less than the odds for the latter using the Internet orf the purpose at hand. The size of habitt avariable is bordering the limit of signiifcance.That is.signiifcant t athe 5%level but not t athe 1%leve1.In addition.all comparisons made with regard to the category of reference are not signiifcant. Therefore,it could be removed from the model without any changes in the goodness of ift indicators. Analysing differences by sex,women make a lower use of this kind of the Internet.Speciifcally,the odds f0r women to make this use ofthe Internet are l2.5%below the odds for men. Lastly,if we look at nationality,the difference is also signiifcant.The odds orf foreigners to make this use of the Intemet are approximately 45%lower than the odds orf Spaniards to do so. With regard to the goodness of ift of the mode1.SPSS shows the Chi-square test and the likelihood ratio test(see Table 2).In both cases,it Carl be seen that the model is not a good fit to the data -values less than 0.05 in both cases).as the expected rfequencies obtained rfom the model differ from those observed. Table 2 Goodness ofFit Another measure of the goodness of ift is the different pseudo R。values shown below(see Table 3).These indicators are based on the model likelihood and should be tken awith caution given that none of them explains the variance in a manner analogous to the R2 coeficifent of the linear regressionWhat they do share with it is .that they take values between zero and one,the closer to one,the better the fit.In the case under study,these indicators show inconspicuous results. Table 3 Summary ofModel One last point regarding the goodness of ift measures:the percentage of cases correctly classiifed is 62.1% (orf a cut—off point of O.5),with a rate of true negatives of 75.6%,and a rate of true positives of 47.3%. Although this measure is not excellent.we can deem it sufficient. In summary.it can be said that most of the variables under consideration(except size of habitat)show signiicantf differences with regard to the use of the Intemet to obtain information from the administration. However.the iftted model does not give excellent predictions.Therefore.it can be concluded that the social and demographic variables studied through the logistic regression model have a signiifcant influence on this speciifc use of the Intemet.This influence is especially relevant in the variables of Ievel of education and age. Despite this.there is another sense in which this study is not conclusive.The social and demographic characteristics of individuals do not explain by themselves the use of informative digital services offered by the different public administrations through the Internet.In other words,there are other variables that are not included in the model which affects the use of the Intemet for this purpose.Identifying these other variables is 41O SPANISH E.GoVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGITAL DIVIDE our priority for future work. However.f0r the purpose of this paper,the results of this statistical study are conclusive.As indicated above.the purpose of this analytical section was to verify,more accurately,the influence of the social and demographic variables on the use of e—government services.In this section,it can be concluded that there is a real and signiifcant relationship between them.Likewise,it can be said that this relationship is especially strong between the use of the digital information services of the public administrations and the variables of age and level of education,so that the older in age and the lower in level of education,the lesser the use of these services is. Theoretical Discussion of Main Conclusions and Results:Reflections on the Idea of Competitive Advantages of E-government E.government is a service promoted by national,regional and local administrations at he itnitiative of the European government.As mentioned above,this initiative stems from the persuasion that the digitalisation of services generates substantia1 advantages for citizens.In order to realise these advantages,governments have put together a set of measures to guarantee the fainessr and equality of the system.It has not been the aim in this paper to question,evaluate or criticise these measures.These are considertiaons to be made by specialists in law or administrtiave science.However,as sociologists,we are able to analyse this process of institutional change from the point of view of the citizenry.In other words,it is far from our intention to analyse the goodness of the laws that regulte athe implementation of e-government policies.But we do consider a pertinent study,such as this one,that raises a debate on two issues. Firstly.e-government sets up services which,as recognised by the governments in question and experts on the subiect alike.provide signiifcant advantages for citizens.These benefits are reltaed with the opening up, approachability。trnsparaency and reltiaonal capability of the administration;in brief,an administration that allows an improved reltiaonship between citizens and the institutions that represent them.These advantages bring about n iamprovement in the access nd enjoymenta of services that re saocially,politically and economically relevant. Using the lnguage of athe literature on the third digital divide,one would say that the services offered through e-government provide its users with competitive advantages.In the descriptive section,it has been seen that over 1 5%of the Internet user uses the websites of the different public administrations to obtain information regarding issues of political,social and economic relevance such as social benefits,job seeking or health services.That is, services that can improve citizens’qualiy of tlife and,most importantly,resources that are finite and therefore, competitive.Access to these services,even if only to obtain information about them or apply for them,thus implies a competitive advantage with regard to citizens who cannot do so.Therefore,e-government does not only improve the conditions of access to the services of the administration;it also,by digitalising them,opens up a new means of attaining them.It is this speciifc circumstnce awe refer to when we talk of the“competitive advantages’’ associated to the use of the Internet orf e-government. However,secondly,in this study,we have taken a“sociological look”at citizens’use of these services.We have not compared Intemet users with non—users.That is,we have not attempted to analyse this problem from the angle of the first or second digital divide.We have approached the empirical study from the perspective of the third digital divide.That is,analysing the social differences between citizens who use the Internet.The aim has been to quantiy fthe impact of sociaI inequalities on potential users of e-government services. This approach attempts to avoid some of the criticisms made regarding the ifrst and second digital divides. SPANISH E.GOVERNMENT AND THE THIRD DIGI L DIVIDE 4Il In other words,it tries to limit the criticism regarding the circumstantial nature of digital inequalities.This paper proposes an environment where only Internet users count,as if we were in a state of universalisation of the use of this technology.The aim is to analyse the inequalities and advantages for some Internet users brought by the use of competitively advantageous services. In this analysis,two things are worth noting.Firstly,the percentage of e-government users has not varied signiifcantly at least in the last six years.This is exactly the opposite of what has happened with commercial and leisure services.This fact is very relevant to measuring the success of public strategies of development of the information society generally and implementation of e-government in particular.After six years,the inititaives of the different national and regional institutions have not managed to improve the penetration of the use of e-government services in Spain.In this same period,these services have not ceased to increase and tO be implemented. However,the most relevant aspect for this study is that there are important social inequalities among e-government users in Spain.These inequalities,as shown in the analytic study,are closely related to issues such as the level of education of citizens and age.The worse their situation with regard to these variables,the lesser the use of the services in question. If we analyse these two elements together,e-government as a set of public services offering citizens socially,politically and economically relevant advantages and the social inequalities in the use of these services, we can appreciate the relevance of the analysis.This analysis underlines that,in Spain,access and enjoyment of services such as those detailed above rae going to citizens that rae be ̄er positioned from a social point of view. In other words,the positive contribution of the services offered by e-government may be benefitting citizens with higher educational,financial and employment resources.Another possible inference of this study is that, despite the effort made by the diiferent administrations.this situation has remained constant over the lsat six years and,according to the trend shown in Figure 1,no available information indicates that this trend is likely to change in the coming years.Th e_corollary of this argument is clear.If the advantages of the use of these services go to a greater extent to citizens who are socially and ifnancially better positioned,and if this situation has remained constant over recent years,the inequalities already existing in Spain due to variables such as level of education and ifnancial or employment resources could increase. Looking from another point of view,it could be said,in support of the thesis of the third digital divide, that the universalisation of the use of the Internet need not necessarily do away with the social inequalities generated by technologies such as the Internet.In other words,the Internet is a space where the inequalities of a given territory are reproduced.It is a technology where the values and hegemonic relations of a society are reproduced.While these inequalities persist,the Internet may be a means for them to reproduce.However,this study has aimed to go one step further.From our point of view,the Internet does not only reproduce existing inequalities,but as a consequence of its possibilities and advantages,expressed in this speciifc case as the potential of e.government services,may make them even deeper.This is the main risk of the digital divide. 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